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The Penman equation describes evaporation (E) from an open water surface, and was developed by Howard Penman in 1948. Penman’s equation requires ... more

The Helmholtz free energy is a thermodynamic potential that measures the “useful” work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system at a constant ... more

The Daniell cell is a type of electrochemical cell consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed ... more

The classical ideal gas law If the calorically perfect gas approximation is used.

In statistical mechanics and mathematics, a Boltzmann distribution (also called Gibbs distribution) is a probability distribution, probability measure, or ... more

Boyle’s law is an experimental gas law which describes how the pressure of a gas tends to decrease as the volume of a gas increases. The absolute ... more

An oblique shock wave, unlike a normal shock, is inclined with respect to the incident upstream flow direction. It will occur when a supersonic flow ... more

Pulse tube cryocooler(or refrigerator) can be made without moving parts in the low temperature part of the device, making the cooler suitable for a wide ... more

In physics, Henry’s law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid. ... more

The heat flow can be modelled by analogy to an electrical circuit where heat flow is represented by current, temperatures are represented by voltages, heat ... more